In many countries the relations between state and non-state service providers have gone through similar stages:

• During the colonial period Christian missions set up hospitals and schools for the indigenous population, while the colonial administration provided health and other services for the elite.
• After independence, many new governments took over public water supply and sanitation systems. They also expropriated private and faith-based schools (Bangladesh, Nigeria, Pakistan) or incorporated them through state funding (Malawi).
• In the 1980s public services deteriorated as state funding declined, forcing users to look elsewhere. A new sector of private, community or NGO providers emerged to fill the gaps.
• Since the 1990s many governments have at least formally recognised the case for ‘partnerships’ with NGOs and the private sector, backed by donors. In Nigeria and Malawi churches may re-adopt and fund schools and hospitals. In Pakistan, some schools have been handed back to their former owners and faith-based organisations are being encouraged to take on new roles as service providers.